Early civilizations
Complex societies arose independently in about six regions: Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, China, the Andes and Mesoamerica. The table adds two that built on earlier neighbours or predecessors. Dates are approximate and are those in general use among archaeologists.
| Region | When | Known for |
|---|---|---|
| Mesopotamia | Cities from about 3500 BCE | Uruk, usually called the first city; cuneiform writing; the earliest surviving law codes |
| Egypt | Unified about 3100 BCE | Hieroglyphic writing; the pyramids of about 2600–2500 BCE; three thousand years of continuity |
| Indus Valley | About 2600–1900 BCE | Planned cities such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, with covered drains and standard weights; a script not yet deciphered |
| Norte Chico, Peru | About 3000–1800 BCE | Monumental platforms at Caral and elsewhere, built without pottery and without any known writing |
| China | Shang dynasty, about 1600–1046 BCE | Bronze casting; oracle-bone inscriptions from about 1250 BCE, the direct ancestor of the modern Chinese script |
| Minoan Crete | Palaces about 2000–1450 BCE | Palaces such as Knossos; the Linear A script, not yet deciphered |
| Mesoamerica | Olmec from about 1200 BCE; later the Maya | Colossal stone heads; among the Maya, a full writing system and a precise calendar |
| The Andes | Inca state, 15th–16th centuries CE | The largest state of the pre-Columbian Americas, with roads and storehouses, administered with knotted-cord records |
Invented more than once
Farming, cities and writing each appeared separately in regions that had no contact with one another. That is the strongest evidence that they are not accidents of one people’s history: similar problems of scale — feeding many, remembering debts, settling disputes between strangers — drew similar solutions.